After the Second World War, agriculture across Europe changed rapidly. New machines replaced animal labour, synthetic fertilisers became widely available, and farming systems were reorganised to produce more food. Fields became larger, farms fewer but bigger, and landscapes more specialised. These developments greatly increased agricultural productivity and helped feed a growing population.
At the same time, farming practices also changed how soils were managed. Fields were often left bare between crops, soils were disturbed more frequently through ploughing and heavy machinery, and many crop residues were removed rather than returned to the soil. Over time, these practices – together with land use change e.g. from forest to cropland – reduced the amount of organic material entering many agricultural soils and increased the rate at which soil organic matter decomposed or was lost through erosion. As a result, soil organic matter and likewise soil organic carbon declined in many regions, making soils more vulnerable to degradation.
These developments were not driven by technology alone. Broader social and economic changes also played a role. Urbanisation, global trade, agricultural policies, and changing diets – particularly rising meat consumption – influenced how land was used and managed. Together, technological innovation, economic pressures, and political decisions shaped the intensive farming systems that dominate much of Europe today.
Optional: For learning more about these technical and socio-economic factors read the articles by Devátý et al. (2019), Jepsen et al. (2015), or Schirpke et al. (2023)!
At the same time, agriculture is increasingly affected by the environmental changes it helps create. Climate change is bringing more frequent droughts, heavy rainfall, and extreme weather events, all of which affect crop production and soil stability.
Yet the story does not end there. In some regions, farming practices have been changing again. In eastern Austria, for example, soil organic carbon levels in arable soils have gradually increased since the early 1990s, resulting in a projected increase of roughly 17% over the last 30 years. This improvement is closely linked to Austria’s agri-environmental program (ÖPUL), which encourages practices that support soil health (Wenzel et al., 2022).
Farmers participating in these programs increasingly leave crop residues on their fields instead of removing or burning them. Many grow cover crops between main crops to protect the soil surface and provide additional organic inputs. Crop rotations have become more diverse, and some farmers reduce the intensity of tillage to slow the breakdown of organic matter and protect soil structure. Organic amendments such as manure also help return carbon and nutrients to the soil.
While climate change continues to pose challenges, these examples show that agricultural policies and farmer decisions can influence soil carbon dynamics. With the right practices, soils that once lost organic carbon may gradually rebuild it over time while both the possibility and stability of SOC largely depend on inherent soil properties such as texture.
Tip: In Module 4 you will explore how agricultural and environmental policies can support more sustainable soil management.
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